The Role of Mobile Health Devices in Healthcare Research Paper

The Role of Mobile Health Devices in Healthcare - Research Paper Example With the expansion of mobile technology and through the advancement of 3g and 4g, mobile devices like PDA’s, phones, Nook, Ipad etc have transformed the fields of communication, healthcare, Information management, commerce and entertainment. As West points out in his research, with the growth of these technologies there was significant improvement in service delivery, in the way people interact, and they have also made business, entrepreneurs and organizations much more powerful (1). M-health is the name given for the practice of using mobile devices like mobile phones, tablet computers and PDA’s in health care. The m-health applications using mobile devices include collecting clinical and community health data, providing sufficient health care information for doctors, patients, researchers and also performing real-time monitoring of patients. These mobile devices have brought changes in the health care delivery and have brought better patient experiences. These technol ogy devices have been a real advantage in the management of chronic diseases. They can be used for reminding the patients to take timely medication, can be used to monitor health status of expectant mothers and elderly people and also could be used to extend the medical services in the areas which are underserved. Overall, these innovative mobile technologies have significantly improved medical system efficiency and have brought better health outcomes and reduced the cost involved. The various mobile technologies used in healthcare include mobile phones, PDA’s, PDA phones like smart phones, tablet e-reader/ media player like Nook Tablet ,handheld ultra portable computers like Ipads or tablet PC’s. A mobile phone or cellular phone can be used to receive telephone calls using radio signals. They also support text messaging. A smart phone is a cell phone which supports some additional features like internet or email. These mobile devices operate on

Mortgaged Backed Securities Literature review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4750 words

Mortgaged Backed Securities - Literature review Example There are three classes of securities issued and traded, and these are assets backed securities (ABS), mortgage-backed securities (MBS) and collateralized debt obligations (CDO) (Blum & Dingell, 1997). As there are several kinds of securities, the primary focus of this section is the securities issues backed by mortgages – MBS. Understanding MBS is essential because it represents the largest portion of securitization in the United States (Nomura, 2006). In addition, apprehending MBS enables one to know the other forms of securitisation, as MBS is the â€Å"original source of securitisation technology†(Nomura, 2006, p. 2). In this regard, as the aim of the research is to gain a deeper understanding of MBS and to know the correlation between MBS and Subprime crisis, this segment of the research will be divided into four sections. The first part will deal with the concept of MBS. This includes the elucidation of the structures, benefits and risks attributed to MBS. The sec ond section will be delving on the credit rating analysis of MBS while the third part will deal with the development of MBS in the United States and its primordial role in the subprime crisis. Finally, the fourth section will be the summary. Mortgage-Backed Securities Mortgages are loans issued against real estate (Hu, 2001). This serves as the backbone of MBS (Stein, Belikoff, Levin & Tian, 2010). As such, a brief discussion of mortgage loans is provided, since, it serves as the condition with which MBS works or thrives. Mortgage loans in the United States are normally fixed in 30-year payment plan. This means that 360 equal payments are to be made by the borrower within that payment scheme. It is assumed in fixed payment that after the 30 –year period both the principal and the interests are paid (Stein et al., 2010). An important facet of mortgage loan is the borrower’s right to prepay his loan. This means that when the interest rates fall, the borrower can have the option of refinancing his loan at a lower rate. While, when the interest rates increase, the borrower can locked-in at a lower rate. Although the fixed-rate mortgage loan is most common mortgage loan, there is also the adjustable-rate mortgage loan (ARM) and the hybrid. ARM offers borrowers the chance to choose a loan that has an adjustable interest rate. The adjustable interests rate can be annually or semi-annually and it is determined by published market index like yields on US Treasury securities. In order to encourage borrowers, some lenders use ‘teaser rates’. Teaser rates are low initial rates, which last until the first adjustments (Nomura, 2006). On the other hand, the hybrid is the combination of fixed rate and ARM. The scheme provides for fixed interests rate for a first several years and then it is converted into semi-annual or annual adjustable rate. Several plans have been offered under the hybrid. There is ‘5/1’, ‘7/1’ and the à ¢â‚¬Ëœ10/1’ hybrids. However, regardless whether it is ARM or hybrid, what is significant is that, just like fixed rate loan , these types of mortgage loans allows or provides the opportunity to the borrower the prepay the loan when the conditions are favourable to the borrower. In this sense, there are two important elements in mortgage loans. First, is the certainty of the borrower’s obligation to make 360 monthly equal payments for a period of 30-years and second is the borrower’s right to prepay the loan when conditions are favourable, which means that borrowers can prepay their mortgage balance in full or in part anytime (Gangwani, 1998) Mortgage Backed Securities: In focus MBS are asset

Geographic Information System (GIS) for Location of Bus Stop

Geographic Information System (GIS) for Location of Bus Stop 1.1 Background Transportation is a system that considers the complex relationships between networks, the demand and space. Transit on the other hand is dominantly an urban transportation mode. Since transit is a shared public service, it potentially benefits from economies of agglomeration related to high densities and from economies of scale related to high mobility demands. Mass bus transit is highly suitable for any university campus, which experiences a high volume of traffic flow during a fixed time frame. Space on the other hand is limited due to its characteristic built environment. ( Reshmi Mukherjee, 2003) Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, and space. The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. Passenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheduled services, or private. Freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of durable items. Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization, but most types cause air pollution and use large amounts of land. While it is heavily subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow, and restrain urban sprawl. (Wikipedia, 2011) Public transportation can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. In infrastructure it involve on the fixed installations necessary for transport, including roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals and pipelines or terminals such as airports, railway stations, bus stations, bus stops and seaports. Vehicles traveling on the network include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, people and aircraft. Operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose including the financing, legalities and policies (Wikipedia, 2011). An intercity bus is a bus that carries passengers significant distances between different cities, towns, or other populated areas. Unlike a municipal bus, which has frequent stops throughout a city or town, an intercity bus generally has a single stop at a centralized location within the city, and travels long distances without stopping at all. Intercity buses exist all over the world that are operated by government or private industry, for profit and not for profit. (Wikipedia, 2011). Infrastructure particularly bus stop is one of the important fixed installation that need to take into account. The bus stop is also the most prominent icon of public transit. The locations, functionality, safety, and visual appearance of stops are critical to attracting and maintaining transit riders in any location In most urban areas, public transportation service is provided by fixed-route bus systems. Bus stops are the point of transition where an enquiry starts to become a journey. It is important to consider passenger characteristics (eg access to the bus stop), route characteristics (eg frequency of buses), service identity or the roading environment when determining the location of individual bus stops. The bus stop is also the first point of contact between the passenger and the bus service. The spacing, location, design, and operation of bus stops significantly influence transit system performance and customer satisfaction. A bus stop is a designated place where buses stop for passengers to board or leave a bus. These are normally positioned on the highway and are distinct from off-highway facilities such as bus stations. The construction of bus stops tends to reflect the level of usage. Stops at busy locations may have shelters, seating and possibly electronic passenger information systems; less busy stops may use a simple pole and flag to mark the location and customary stops have no specific infrastructure being known by their description. Bus stops may be clustered together into transport hubs allowing interchange between routes from nearby stops and with other public transport modes. (Wikipedia, 2011). 1.2 Problem of Statement Bus is a major demand in Malaysia as public intercity transit. Besides the fees is in low rate it also serve a better public transportation if it has to do with plenty numbers of passengers. Since the bus stop is the most prominent icon of public transit, the location, functionality, safety, and visual appearance of stops are critical to attracting and maintaining transit riders in any location. Present bus stops in Malaysia certainly are inconveniently located. GIS is being used to locate suitable location for the bus stops. As the density of passenger and land use pattern in Shah Alam has changed drastically it is upmost that new bus locations need to be identified. 1.3 Aim The aim of this case study is to locate the best locations for bus stops within the city of Shah Alam using Geographic Information System (GIS). Comparison of the existing and the planned bus stops will be carry out. 1.4 Objectives To compare the criteria of locating bus stop between the existing policy and my observation and to suggest an appropriate location to locate bus stop base on criteria: Standard spacing between bus stop Density of population Non-Resident of UiTMà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s students Nearby attractions and major people generators: Schools / educational premises Hospitals Residential Recreational park Shopping area 1.5 Limitations In this thesis, software used is ArcGIS version 9.3 Use the Network Analysis Extension tools options Focused only on the bus transportation provide by the RapidKL company The test network dataset is Section 7, Shah Alam road network 1.6 Assumption In this thesis, there are several assumption made. The bus stops served in transportation industry in Malaysia are certainly not consistently located. This study assumes that bus is the major transportation system used in Shah Alam and there is facilities transportation problem in bus transportation industries at Shah Alam area especially bus stops. The bus stop locations are not systematically located. 1.7 Study Area Shah Alam is the location for study area in this case study. It is because as we can see the major public transportation in Shah Alam is bus. This case study is more focus on students generators especially among UiTMà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Non-resident students. From the demographic side, almost all the bus passengers are students. Most of student in UiTM Shah Alam use buses as their main transportation to go to classes. With the capacity of student, it makes the bus services route around the study area more frequently. In current situation, there are many bus stop location is inconveniently located. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter discusses and review current practices of transportation in Malaysia especially in infrastructure of transportation. The discussion start with an overview of transportation in Malaysia followed by category of transportation namely private and public. This discussion is focused on the specification of location of bus stop. Final section will elaborate about the ArcGIS buffering framework, network analysis and its capability and that maybe useful in this study. 2.2 Transportation in Malaysia Malaysia is served by an excellent transport system. Once you are in the country there is always transport available to you to even remote areas. Traveling by road in peninsula Malaysia is popular as it has well- developed network of roads.  There are various options available as to how you might wish to get to a destination.   In Sabah and Sarawak, it is recommended for traveling by four-wheel drive as on unpaved roads, and many remote areas can only be reached by air or river-boats. If you want to see clearly the countryside, traveling by rail is also highly recommended. 2.2.1 Transport Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one to another location. There are many types of modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline and space. The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. (Wikipedia, 2011) Transport infrastructure consists of the fixed installations necessary for transport, and may be roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals and pipelines, and terminals such as airports, railway stations, bus stations, warehouses, trucking terminals, refueling depots (including fueling docks and fuel stations), and seaports. Terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and cargo and for maintenance. Vehicles traveling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, people, helicopters and aircraft. In the transport industry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be either public or private, depending on the country and mode. 2.2.2 Road A road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places. Roads are typically smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel; though they need not be, and historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or maintenance. In urban areas, roads may pass through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a dual function as urban space easement and route. The most common road vehicle is the automobile which is a wheeled passenger vehicle that carries its own motor. Other users of roads include buses, trucks, motorcycles, bicycles and pedestrians. As of 2002, there were 590 million automobiles worldwide. Buses allow for more efficient travel at the cost of reduced flexibility. (Wikipedia, 2011) 2.2.3 Buses Buses are an inexpensive way to travel in Malaysia. Most, if not all buses in Kuala Lumpur (KL) are air-conditioned but there are still non-air-conditioned buses in smaller towns around the country. Buses plying routes within towns and cities typically charge fares according to the distance covered while interstate buses have fixed rates.Most of areas in Malaysia are using buses as major transportation. Especially in area with major people generator such as in residential, educational, industrial and recreational area. The public bus service in Shah Alam is efficient and covers a wide range of routes, although steps are being taken to constantly improve the services. Strategic bus stops and stations offer passengers plenty of boarding options. Buses are in good condition and fully air-conditioned. Designated bus lanes also enable smooth scheduling of bus services for passengers ease. The bus routes also link to other transportation options like the Light Rail Transit (LRT) system, train station and taxi stands (Urban Transportation Department, 2008). Rapid KL as one of the bus company in Malaysia operates 134 routes in the Klang Valley including the suburban feeder service to complement the LRT systems. It has two central workshops and 13 bus depots spread across the Klang Valley and plans to gradually introduce more 15 minutes frequency throughout its system is also one of RAPID KLs goals. Today, 15 minutes frequency is operated only at 13 routes at high-density routes (RapidKL, 2008). 2.3 Transportation Facility 2.3.1 Bus Stop A bus stop is a designated place where buses stop for passengers to board or leave a bus. These are normally positioned on the highway and are distinct from off-highway facilities such as bus stations. The construction of bus stops tends to reflect the level of usage. Stops at busy locations may have shelters, seating and possibly electronic passenger information systems but there are also busy stops may use a simple pole and flag to mark the location and customary stops have no specific infrastructure being known by their description. Bus stops may be clustered together into transport hubs allowing interchange between routes from nearby stops and with other public transport modes. For operational purposes there are three main kinds of stops. First, scheduled stops, at which the bus should stop irrespective of demand. Second, request stops (or flag stop) where the vehicle will only stop on requested and hail and ride stops where a vehicle will stop anywhere along the designated section of road on request. Certain stops may be restricted to set-down only or pick-up only. Some stops may be designated as timing points and if the vehicle is ahead of schedule it will wait to ensure correct running to the timetable. In dense urban areas where bus volumes are high, skip-stops are sometimes used to increase efficiency and reduce delays at bus stops. Fare stages may also be defined by the location of certain stops in distance or zone based fare collection systems. (Wikipedia, 2011) Bus stops are placed in one of three locations: near-side (located immediately before an intersection); far-side (located immediately after an intersection); and mid-block (located between intersections). Each of these locations offers advantages to vehicle drivers and pedestrians. However, the final decision on bus stop locations dependent on ease of operation, transfer situations, space availability, and traffic volumes. Pace performs on-site evaluations of proposed bus stop to analyze operating conditions and identify appropriate bus stop locations. (Pace Development Guidelines, 1999) Near-side bus stop sign placement is generally 10 feet from the corner tangent point and 5 feet from the outer curb. However, site characteristics will ultimately dictate exact sign location. Where site limitations exist, the sign should be setback a minimum of 2 feet. Near-side locations offer a number of features to pedestrians and vehicle drivers. This location allows pedestrians to cross in front of the bus. This location also allows transit users to load and alight from buses close to crosswalks and intersections, thereby minimizing, walking distances to connecting transit service. Far-side bus stop locations are recommended on routes in which buses make left turns at intersections. Once a bus negotiates a left turn, a far-side stop provides a more appropriate service point. Far-side stops also are recommended in locations where dedicated right turn lanes are present. Far-side stops may facilitate easier bus re-entry into traffic due to gaps created by intersection traffic signa ls. Another bus stop location is the mid-block stop. A mid-block location is generally less congested than an intersection. Bus turnouts are most effectively located in a mid-block bus stop zone. Mid block stops are applicable at T-intersections or locations generating a larger passenger volume. (Pace Development Guidelines, 1999) Bus stop is the first point of contact between the passenger and the bus service. The spacing, location, design, and operation of bus stops significantly influence transit system performance and customer satisfaction. (Texas Transportation Institute, 1996) Bus stops should be at safe locations, no more than 50 meters after a traffic light or road intersection. They should not be located on sloped surfaces which considered unsafe. (Higher Committee of Planning Cities 2000) Good pedestrian facilities often make the trip to stops more enjoyable, thus making it easier for people to choose both modes of transportation to go to work, shopping, or other activities. All transit facilities and the transportation routes that lead to them have needed to be safe, convenient, and accessible. If people do not feel safe or comfortable walking to stops, then they are likely to choose other modes of travel, such as a car. (A Gis Approach To Evaluate Bus Stop Accessibility, Giuseppe SALVO). Socioeconomic data is vital for determining locations for transit routes and facilities. Often, socioeconomic spatial data resides in a zonal layer that may cover a very large area. While socioeconomic data aggregated to these large zones are useful for regional analyses, they canà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t support a analysis of accessibility to bus stops. (A Gis Approach To Evaluate Bus Stop Accessibility, Giuseppe SALVO). Since the bus stops would have been installed before many years, the then density of the passengers and land use pattern would have undergone a drastic change and the bus stops would not commensurate with these changes. Hence there is an increasing need for the bus stops to be rationalized. (Mr. G. Saravanan Mr. S. Suresh Immanuel, 2003) 2.4 GIS à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“a GIS is a system of hardware, software and procedures to facilitate the management, manipulation, analysis, modeling, representation and display of georeferenced data to solve complex problems regarding planning and management of resourcesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (NCGIA, 1990). A geographic information system (GIS) is an information system that is designed to work with data referenced by spatial or geographic coordinates. In other words, a GIS is both a database system with specific capabilities for spatially reference data, as well as a set of operations for working with data. In a sense, a GIS may be thought of as a higher-order map. (Jeffrey Star and John Estes à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" 1990) GIS integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing, managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information. GIS technology allows us to view, query, and understand data in many ways. We will see the relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of GIS-based maps, reports, and charts. GIS helps us answer questions and solve problems. When viewed in the context of geography, our data is quickly understood and easily shared. GIS technology can be integrated into any enterprise information system framework. (ESRI, 2011). In broad terms, a Geographic Information System could be defined as a set of principles and techniques employed to achieve one (or both) of the following objectives: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Finding suitable locations that have the relevant attributes. For example, finding a suitable location where an airport, a commercial forest or a retail outlet can be established. This is usually achieved through the use of Boolean (logical) operations. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Querying the geographical attributes of a specified location. For example, examining the roads in a particular locality, to check road density or find the shortest path, and so on. This is often achieved by à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"clickingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ onto the location or object of interest, and examining the contents of the database for that location or object. 2.4.1 GIS in Transportation GIS has been recognized for many years now as an invaluable tool for managing, planning, evaluating, and maintaining transportation systems. As the gateway to economic development and, subsequently, a healthy economy, transportation infrastructure represents one of the largest and most critical investments made in any nation, at whatever stage of development. Similarly, for many firms in the transportation industry, profitability and a strong competitive position depend on a safe and reliable system. Roads are the main arteries of a modern societyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s infrastructure, contributing heavily to the distribution of goods and persons. GIS provides many helpful applications for ensuring a smooth transportation flow. Customer satisfaction, competitive position, timely response, effective deployment, and profitability are all positively affected (GISDATA Group, 2009). Being able to visualize your assets and the surrounding environment when you build, upgrade, or repair transportation infrastructure helps you prioritize your work and make the right decisions. A geographic information system (GIS) software platform will allow you to do all this and much more. With Esrià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s GIS technology, you can build dynamic and rich mapping applications that will keep everyone from the project team and government officials to field staff and the public in the know. (ESRI, 2011). GIS contain data related to location points, lines (commonly roadway links and corridors), and polygons. Analysis tools that are part of GIS software packages can be used to relate these data. The use of GIS to manage data can simplify the analysis of transport systems and can enhance the decision-making process (Worldbank ). 2.4.2 The Importance of Geospatial Data The nature of any natural or economic activity with a spatial dimension cannot be properly understood without reference to its spatial qualities. Spatial data have two essential parts: location and attributes. A GIS requires location references. Typical location references are latitude and longitude and national grid references such as the National Grid. However, other geospatial codes can also be used to identify location, such as postcodes. Attributes. Any locality would have a number of characteristics or properties associated with it. These attributes are usually kept in tables, containing such information as vegetation types, population, annual income, and so on. GIS systems store and process data in two formats, vector and raster. In the vector data model, the world is represented as a mosaic of interconnecting lines and points representing the location and boundaries of geographical entities. In vector data models, the data are represented as: arcs (lines) polygons (traversed areas) points (labelled nodes) nodes (intersection points) 2.4.3 Existing GIS Based System A Spatial Locationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"Allocation GIS Framework for Managing Water Sources in a Savanna Nature Reserve. (Source: www.nceas.ucsb.edu) Associated with the establishment or removal of water sources in savanna ecosystems is the issue of the effects of such management actions on animal movement and habitat selection, longer term implications on population levels, and impacts of such change on habitat degradation and soil erosion. Extant metrics used to describe the spatial distribution of water sources on the landscape often fall short of providing source-specific information, making them hard to apply in small-scale management settings. Using the Klaserie Private Nature Reserve (KPNR) as a case study, comparison between of a: buffer framework which is to describing distances to water, a nearest neighbor framework, spatial locationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"allocation framework (SLAF) created in a geographic information system (GIS) These three frameworks can be combined into one GIS to demonstrate site-specific information on water source distribution, in addition to system-wide descriptions. The visually accessible quality of a GIS allows qualitative input from managers and property owners to achieve quantifiable management goals. The duality of database and visual representation provides a useful tool to assess the role of individual water sources and can easily be updated to reflect changes in their distribution. In this study, seasonal effects on the water source distribution are modeled first. Then two hypothetical management scenarios are modeled based on realistic management options for this reserve. For the first management scenario we map the resulting distribution when all artificially supplemented water sources are à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"turned onà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in the dry season. Fig 1: Location of KNPR (Klaserie Private Nature Reserve) Water sources in this study include seasonal pans, artificial pans and catchment dams as point sources and two major river courses, the Klaserie and the Olifants, which have perennial segments in KPNR. Buffer framework For the buffer framework, the locations of all the water sources tabulated during the wet season were buffered in concentric 1 km rings and clipped to the reserve boundary to assess the area of the reserve at different distances to water (Fig. 2a); this process was repeated for the dry season water sources (Fig. 2b) and then for the two hypothetical management scenarios and the results tabulated for comparison. Fig 2(a): Buffer model showing distribution of distance to water classes during the KPNR wet season Fig. 2(b): Buffer model showing distribution of distance to water classes during the KPNR dry season. Nearest neighbour framework The locations of the wet and dry season water points were used to calculate the nearest distance to river sections and then to nearest water source. The nearest neighbour distance between two point water sources was calculated as a vector, by minimizing the results of a triangular matrix calculator for Euclidian distance in Microsoft Excel ©. The lesser of the distance to nearest river or nearest neighbour was taken as the nearest neighbour distance to water. Spatial locationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"allocation framework (SLAF) The simplest spatial representation of an unconstrained locationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"allocation model of supply points to demand regions uses the Dirichlet tessellation to generate Voronoi or Thiessen polygons (Okabe et al. 1992). A tessellation is essentially a mosaic, a tiling created in a geometric plane. This tessellation is created by the intersections of perpendicular bisectors between each point in a set. The three frameworks used to assess the change in distribution of water points in the reserve yielded generalizations, which are useful as descriptors of system change, but can be hard to translate directly into management action on specific water sources. The advantage of the SLAF over the two other frameworks is that the area of the polygon associated with each water source is visually Optimization of Bus stop locations using GIS as a tool for Chennai city- Acase study, R.Sankar, 2003 In a developing country like India every advancement depends upon the funds available. This influencing factor is considered as there is huge need of finance for the development of infrastructure such as laying of good, strong roads. The road grade is essential for having bus routes in a particular area. It is not possible to have bus stops in the interior where the grade is poorer. The density of population and the infrastructure go hand in hand, this is the reason for having many bus stops in close proximity in the main roads. While considering the financial status of the government it is also necessary to consider the status of the public. In a higher middle income, higher income groups the dependency on the public transit system is less making it less imperative to have more bus stops. Conversely the lower income group and the economically weaker section entirely depend upon the corporation buses for their transit. Finally the locations are graded based on the risk factors. The s ites selected should not be near the junctions. Dangerous turnings are avoided. Methodology Data collection is taking on the ground using GPS and the map of road network which include the position of each bus stop in term of coordinates. There are about 41 bus stops between Vadapalani and Besent nagar, which is the study area. There are about 21 roads in the selected route. The network map is digitized. Digitization is done manually using On-screen method. The errors in the original maps will be transferred and they are likely magnified when digitized using GIS. Here arcs and nodes are defined by the user. The projection used here is polyconic which is considered the best suited for India. Arc View and Arc Info are the softwares used for digitization, transformation/projection and analysis. Analysis Buffer analysis is made to determine the effected area. The minimum and maximum distances are given. Selected route in the network map which are given as buffer distances. If there is overlap in the buffers then a common point can be considered for the location of the stop such that there is no overlap. This point is selected considering other criteria also. Confluence of all parameters is essential before arriving into any decision. The similar way if the distance between two buffers are more this indicate that the area in the in between region is not properly served by any of the bus stops. In this case new bus stops can be created. Thus it is necessary to calculate based on all the parameters that none of the areas are under served or over served. The route analysis was made the impedance value and the speed is given based on the vehicular volume on each road. The bus stops can be minimized in roads where there the existing traffic is high, additional positioning of these stops would add up to the traffic congestion. The locations of important centers such as hospitals, schools etc are also estimated for their proximity to the stops using the route analysis module. The time gained due to the reduction of the stops vice versa is also projected by having each location as a node and by giving a positive or negative value for the calculation of impedance. The demographic characteristics are also computed. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter will explain the methodology adopted in this study. The explanation starts with the introduction of adopted method for literature review, the method for data acquisition and the type of data acquired, data preparation and processing and followed by performing data analysis and results documentation and recording methods. Project Planning Data Preparation and Processing Data Acquisition and type of Data acquired Analysis and Results Fig. 3.1: Methodology Flow Sequence 3.2 Research Methodology Project Planning Selection of hardware and software (ArcGIS) Selection of study area (Shah Alam) Selection of data Data Acquisition and Type of Data Acquired Spatial data 1) Land use map 2) Route map 3) Layer Trace existing bus stop location using handheld GPS (X,Y). Attribute name 1) Road name 2) Building 3) Population UiTMà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s NR student source from HEP UiTM. (X,Y) Data Preparation and Processing Creating different Themes Digitizing Scanning Digitizing Creating Attribute Tables Analysis and Result - - Compare existing bus stop location with the recommendation as requested safety reasons. Proposed new bus stops based on the location of resident for Non-Resident students. Compare the distance between two consecutive bus stops with the standard distance of travel by man by walk which is 400m. (source from MBSA) Fig 3.2: Flow Chart of Methodology Phase 1: Preliminary Study Project Planning 1. Selection of Study Area The city of Shah Alam has to be selected as study case area which covers section 2 until section 24. This study emphasized in the area with educational institutions especially UiTM since this study is focused on non-residents students. 2. Selection of Hardware and Software Hardware for scanning, digitizing, and processing has been determined. Software that will be used is ArcMap. This software helps in digitizing also analysis. 3. Selection of Data To select data, it needs to relate with problem statement. Data has been gathered from many of sources that will be explain in Data Collection. Phase 2 : Data Acquisition and Type of Data Acquired 1. Spatial Data Spatial data is data pertaining to the location and spatial dimensions of geographical entities Geographic Information System (GIS) for Location of Bus Stop Geographic Information System (GIS) for Location of Bus Stop 1.1 Background Transportation is a system that considers the complex relationships between networks, the demand and space. Transit on the other hand is dominantly an urban transportation mode. Since transit is a shared public service, it potentially benefits from economies of agglomeration related to high densities and from economies of scale related to high mobility demands. Mass bus transit is highly suitable for any university campus, which experiences a high volume of traffic flow during a fixed time frame. Space on the other hand is limited due to its characteristic built environment. ( Reshmi Mukherjee, 2003) Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, and space. The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. Passenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheduled services, or private. Freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of durable items. Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization, but most types cause air pollution and use large amounts of land. While it is heavily subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow, and restrain urban sprawl. (Wikipedia, 2011) Public transportation can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. In infrastructure it involve on the fixed installations necessary for transport, including roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals and pipelines or terminals such as airports, railway stations, bus stations, bus stops and seaports. Vehicles traveling on the network include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, people and aircraft. Operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose including the financing, legalities and policies (Wikipedia, 2011). An intercity bus is a bus that carries passengers significant distances between different cities, towns, or other populated areas. Unlike a municipal bus, which has frequent stops throughout a city or town, an intercity bus generally has a single stop at a centralized location within the city, and travels long distances without stopping at all. Intercity buses exist all over the world that are operated by government or private industry, for profit and not for profit. (Wikipedia, 2011). Infrastructure particularly bus stop is one of the important fixed installation that need to take into account. The bus stop is also the most prominent icon of public transit. The locations, functionality, safety, and visual appearance of stops are critical to attracting and maintaining transit riders in any location In most urban areas, public transportation service is provided by fixed-route bus systems. Bus stops are the point of transition where an enquiry starts to become a journey. It is important to consider passenger characteristics (eg access to the bus stop), route characteristics (eg frequency of buses), service identity or the roading environment when determining the location of individual bus stops. The bus stop is also the first point of contact between the passenger and the bus service. The spacing, location, design, and operation of bus stops significantly influence transit system performance and customer satisfaction. A bus stop is a designated place where buses stop for passengers to board or leave a bus. These are normally positioned on the highway and are distinct from off-highway facilities such as bus stations. The construction of bus stops tends to reflect the level of usage. Stops at busy locations may have shelters, seating and possibly electronic passenger information systems; less busy stops may use a simple pole and flag to mark the location and customary stops have no specific infrastructure being known by their description. Bus stops may be clustered together into transport hubs allowing interchange between routes from nearby stops and with other public transport modes. (Wikipedia, 2011). 1.2 Problem of Statement Bus is a major demand in Malaysia as public intercity transit. Besides the fees is in low rate it also serve a better public transportation if it has to do with plenty numbers of passengers. Since the bus stop is the most prominent icon of public transit, the location, functionality, safety, and visual appearance of stops are critical to attracting and maintaining transit riders in any location. Present bus stops in Malaysia certainly are inconveniently located. GIS is being used to locate suitable location for the bus stops. As the density of passenger and land use pattern in Shah Alam has changed drastically it is upmost that new bus locations need to be identified. 1.3 Aim The aim of this case study is to locate the best locations for bus stops within the city of Shah Alam using Geographic Information System (GIS). Comparison of the existing and the planned bus stops will be carry out. 1.4 Objectives To compare the criteria of locating bus stop between the existing policy and my observation and to suggest an appropriate location to locate bus stop base on criteria: Standard spacing between bus stop Density of population Non-Resident of UiTMà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s students Nearby attractions and major people generators: Schools / educational premises Hospitals Residential Recreational park Shopping area 1.5 Limitations In this thesis, software used is ArcGIS version 9.3 Use the Network Analysis Extension tools options Focused only on the bus transportation provide by the RapidKL company The test network dataset is Section 7, Shah Alam road network 1.6 Assumption In this thesis, there are several assumption made. The bus stops served in transportation industry in Malaysia are certainly not consistently located. This study assumes that bus is the major transportation system used in Shah Alam and there is facilities transportation problem in bus transportation industries at Shah Alam area especially bus stops. The bus stop locations are not systematically located. 1.7 Study Area Shah Alam is the location for study area in this case study. It is because as we can see the major public transportation in Shah Alam is bus. This case study is more focus on students generators especially among UiTMà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Non-resident students. From the demographic side, almost all the bus passengers are students. Most of student in UiTM Shah Alam use buses as their main transportation to go to classes. With the capacity of student, it makes the bus services route around the study area more frequently. In current situation, there are many bus stop location is inconveniently located. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter discusses and review current practices of transportation in Malaysia especially in infrastructure of transportation. The discussion start with an overview of transportation in Malaysia followed by category of transportation namely private and public. This discussion is focused on the specification of location of bus stop. Final section will elaborate about the ArcGIS buffering framework, network analysis and its capability and that maybe useful in this study. 2.2 Transportation in Malaysia Malaysia is served by an excellent transport system. Once you are in the country there is always transport available to you to even remote areas. Traveling by road in peninsula Malaysia is popular as it has well- developed network of roads.  There are various options available as to how you might wish to get to a destination.   In Sabah and Sarawak, it is recommended for traveling by four-wheel drive as on unpaved roads, and many remote areas can only be reached by air or river-boats. If you want to see clearly the countryside, traveling by rail is also highly recommended. 2.2.1 Transport Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one to another location. There are many types of modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline and space. The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. (Wikipedia, 2011) Transport infrastructure consists of the fixed installations necessary for transport, and may be roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals and pipelines, and terminals such as airports, railway stations, bus stations, warehouses, trucking terminals, refueling depots (including fueling docks and fuel stations), and seaports. Terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and cargo and for maintenance. Vehicles traveling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, people, helicopters and aircraft. In the transport industry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be either public or private, depending on the country and mode. 2.2.2 Road A road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places. Roads are typically smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel; though they need not be, and historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or maintenance. In urban areas, roads may pass through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a dual function as urban space easement and route. The most common road vehicle is the automobile which is a wheeled passenger vehicle that carries its own motor. Other users of roads include buses, trucks, motorcycles, bicycles and pedestrians. As of 2002, there were 590 million automobiles worldwide. Buses allow for more efficient travel at the cost of reduced flexibility. (Wikipedia, 2011) 2.2.3 Buses Buses are an inexpensive way to travel in Malaysia. Most, if not all buses in Kuala Lumpur (KL) are air-conditioned but there are still non-air-conditioned buses in smaller towns around the country. Buses plying routes within towns and cities typically charge fares according to the distance covered while interstate buses have fixed rates.Most of areas in Malaysia are using buses as major transportation. Especially in area with major people generator such as in residential, educational, industrial and recreational area. The public bus service in Shah Alam is efficient and covers a wide range of routes, although steps are being taken to constantly improve the services. Strategic bus stops and stations offer passengers plenty of boarding options. Buses are in good condition and fully air-conditioned. Designated bus lanes also enable smooth scheduling of bus services for passengers ease. The bus routes also link to other transportation options like the Light Rail Transit (LRT) system, train station and taxi stands (Urban Transportation Department, 2008). Rapid KL as one of the bus company in Malaysia operates 134 routes in the Klang Valley including the suburban feeder service to complement the LRT systems. It has two central workshops and 13 bus depots spread across the Klang Valley and plans to gradually introduce more 15 minutes frequency throughout its system is also one of RAPID KLs goals. Today, 15 minutes frequency is operated only at 13 routes at high-density routes (RapidKL, 2008). 2.3 Transportation Facility 2.3.1 Bus Stop A bus stop is a designated place where buses stop for passengers to board or leave a bus. These are normally positioned on the highway and are distinct from off-highway facilities such as bus stations. The construction of bus stops tends to reflect the level of usage. Stops at busy locations may have shelters, seating and possibly electronic passenger information systems but there are also busy stops may use a simple pole and flag to mark the location and customary stops have no specific infrastructure being known by their description. Bus stops may be clustered together into transport hubs allowing interchange between routes from nearby stops and with other public transport modes. For operational purposes there are three main kinds of stops. First, scheduled stops, at which the bus should stop irrespective of demand. Second, request stops (or flag stop) where the vehicle will only stop on requested and hail and ride stops where a vehicle will stop anywhere along the designated section of road on request. Certain stops may be restricted to set-down only or pick-up only. Some stops may be designated as timing points and if the vehicle is ahead of schedule it will wait to ensure correct running to the timetable. In dense urban areas where bus volumes are high, skip-stops are sometimes used to increase efficiency and reduce delays at bus stops. Fare stages may also be defined by the location of certain stops in distance or zone based fare collection systems. (Wikipedia, 2011) Bus stops are placed in one of three locations: near-side (located immediately before an intersection); far-side (located immediately after an intersection); and mid-block (located between intersections). Each of these locations offers advantages to vehicle drivers and pedestrians. However, the final decision on bus stop locations dependent on ease of operation, transfer situations, space availability, and traffic volumes. Pace performs on-site evaluations of proposed bus stop to analyze operating conditions and identify appropriate bus stop locations. (Pace Development Guidelines, 1999) Near-side bus stop sign placement is generally 10 feet from the corner tangent point and 5 feet from the outer curb. However, site characteristics will ultimately dictate exact sign location. Where site limitations exist, the sign should be setback a minimum of 2 feet. Near-side locations offer a number of features to pedestrians and vehicle drivers. This location allows pedestrians to cross in front of the bus. This location also allows transit users to load and alight from buses close to crosswalks and intersections, thereby minimizing, walking distances to connecting transit service. Far-side bus stop locations are recommended on routes in which buses make left turns at intersections. Once a bus negotiates a left turn, a far-side stop provides a more appropriate service point. Far-side stops also are recommended in locations where dedicated right turn lanes are present. Far-side stops may facilitate easier bus re-entry into traffic due to gaps created by intersection traffic signa ls. Another bus stop location is the mid-block stop. A mid-block location is generally less congested than an intersection. Bus turnouts are most effectively located in a mid-block bus stop zone. Mid block stops are applicable at T-intersections or locations generating a larger passenger volume. (Pace Development Guidelines, 1999) Bus stop is the first point of contact between the passenger and the bus service. The spacing, location, design, and operation of bus stops significantly influence transit system performance and customer satisfaction. (Texas Transportation Institute, 1996) Bus stops should be at safe locations, no more than 50 meters after a traffic light or road intersection. They should not be located on sloped surfaces which considered unsafe. (Higher Committee of Planning Cities 2000) Good pedestrian facilities often make the trip to stops more enjoyable, thus making it easier for people to choose both modes of transportation to go to work, shopping, or other activities. All transit facilities and the transportation routes that lead to them have needed to be safe, convenient, and accessible. If people do not feel safe or comfortable walking to stops, then they are likely to choose other modes of travel, such as a car. (A Gis Approach To Evaluate Bus Stop Accessibility, Giuseppe SALVO). Socioeconomic data is vital for determining locations for transit routes and facilities. Often, socioeconomic spatial data resides in a zonal layer that may cover a very large area. While socioeconomic data aggregated to these large zones are useful for regional analyses, they canà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t support a analysis of accessibility to bus stops. (A Gis Approach To Evaluate Bus Stop Accessibility, Giuseppe SALVO). Since the bus stops would have been installed before many years, the then density of the passengers and land use pattern would have undergone a drastic change and the bus stops would not commensurate with these changes. Hence there is an increasing need for the bus stops to be rationalized. (Mr. G. Saravanan Mr. S. Suresh Immanuel, 2003) 2.4 GIS à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“a GIS is a system of hardware, software and procedures to facilitate the management, manipulation, analysis, modeling, representation and display of georeferenced data to solve complex problems regarding planning and management of resourcesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (NCGIA, 1990). A geographic information system (GIS) is an information system that is designed to work with data referenced by spatial or geographic coordinates. In other words, a GIS is both a database system with specific capabilities for spatially reference data, as well as a set of operations for working with data. In a sense, a GIS may be thought of as a higher-order map. (Jeffrey Star and John Estes à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" 1990) GIS integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing, managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information. GIS technology allows us to view, query, and understand data in many ways. We will see the relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of GIS-based maps, reports, and charts. GIS helps us answer questions and solve problems. When viewed in the context of geography, our data is quickly understood and easily shared. GIS technology can be integrated into any enterprise information system framework. (ESRI, 2011). In broad terms, a Geographic Information System could be defined as a set of principles and techniques employed to achieve one (or both) of the following objectives: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Finding suitable locations that have the relevant attributes. For example, finding a suitable location where an airport, a commercial forest or a retail outlet can be established. This is usually achieved through the use of Boolean (logical) operations. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Querying the geographical attributes of a specified location. For example, examining the roads in a particular locality, to check road density or find the shortest path, and so on. This is often achieved by à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"clickingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ onto the location or object of interest, and examining the contents of the database for that location or object. 2.4.1 GIS in Transportation GIS has been recognized for many years now as an invaluable tool for managing, planning, evaluating, and maintaining transportation systems. As the gateway to economic development and, subsequently, a healthy economy, transportation infrastructure represents one of the largest and most critical investments made in any nation, at whatever stage of development. Similarly, for many firms in the transportation industry, profitability and a strong competitive position depend on a safe and reliable system. Roads are the main arteries of a modern societyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s infrastructure, contributing heavily to the distribution of goods and persons. GIS provides many helpful applications for ensuring a smooth transportation flow. Customer satisfaction, competitive position, timely response, effective deployment, and profitability are all positively affected (GISDATA Group, 2009). Being able to visualize your assets and the surrounding environment when you build, upgrade, or repair transportation infrastructure helps you prioritize your work and make the right decisions. A geographic information system (GIS) software platform will allow you to do all this and much more. With Esrià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s GIS technology, you can build dynamic and rich mapping applications that will keep everyone from the project team and government officials to field staff and the public in the know. (ESRI, 2011). GIS contain data related to location points, lines (commonly roadway links and corridors), and polygons. Analysis tools that are part of GIS software packages can be used to relate these data. The use of GIS to manage data can simplify the analysis of transport systems and can enhance the decision-making process (Worldbank ). 2.4.2 The Importance of Geospatial Data The nature of any natural or economic activity with a spatial dimension cannot be properly understood without reference to its spatial qualities. Spatial data have two essential parts: location and attributes. A GIS requires location references. Typical location references are latitude and longitude and national grid references such as the National Grid. However, other geospatial codes can also be used to identify location, such as postcodes. Attributes. Any locality would have a number of characteristics or properties associated with it. These attributes are usually kept in tables, containing such information as vegetation types, population, annual income, and so on. GIS systems store and process data in two formats, vector and raster. In the vector data model, the world is represented as a mosaic of interconnecting lines and points representing the location and boundaries of geographical entities. In vector data models, the data are represented as: arcs (lines) polygons (traversed areas) points (labelled nodes) nodes (intersection points) 2.4.3 Existing GIS Based System A Spatial Locationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"Allocation GIS Framework for Managing Water Sources in a Savanna Nature Reserve. (Source: www.nceas.ucsb.edu) Associated with the establishment or removal of water sources in savanna ecosystems is the issue of the effects of such management actions on animal movement and habitat selection, longer term implications on population levels, and impacts of such change on habitat degradation and soil erosion. Extant metrics used to describe the spatial distribution of water sources on the landscape often fall short of providing source-specific information, making them hard to apply in small-scale management settings. Using the Klaserie Private Nature Reserve (KPNR) as a case study, comparison between of a: buffer framework which is to describing distances to water, a nearest neighbor framework, spatial locationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"allocation framework (SLAF) created in a geographic information system (GIS) These three frameworks can be combined into one GIS to demonstrate site-specific information on water source distribution, in addition to system-wide descriptions. The visually accessible quality of a GIS allows qualitative input from managers and property owners to achieve quantifiable management goals. The duality of database and visual representation provides a useful tool to assess the role of individual water sources and can easily be updated to reflect changes in their distribution. In this study, seasonal effects on the water source distribution are modeled first. Then two hypothetical management scenarios are modeled based on realistic management options for this reserve. For the first management scenario we map the resulting distribution when all artificially supplemented water sources are à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"turned onà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in the dry season. Fig 1: Location of KNPR (Klaserie Private Nature Reserve) Water sources in this study include seasonal pans, artificial pans and catchment dams as point sources and two major river courses, the Klaserie and the Olifants, which have perennial segments in KPNR. Buffer framework For the buffer framework, the locations of all the water sources tabulated during the wet season were buffered in concentric 1 km rings and clipped to the reserve boundary to assess the area of the reserve at different distances to water (Fig. 2a); this process was repeated for the dry season water sources (Fig. 2b) and then for the two hypothetical management scenarios and the results tabulated for comparison. Fig 2(a): Buffer model showing distribution of distance to water classes during the KPNR wet season Fig. 2(b): Buffer model showing distribution of distance to water classes during the KPNR dry season. Nearest neighbour framework The locations of the wet and dry season water points were used to calculate the nearest distance to river sections and then to nearest water source. The nearest neighbour distance between two point water sources was calculated as a vector, by minimizing the results of a triangular matrix calculator for Euclidian distance in Microsoft Excel ©. The lesser of the distance to nearest river or nearest neighbour was taken as the nearest neighbour distance to water. Spatial locationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"allocation framework (SLAF) The simplest spatial representation of an unconstrained locationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"allocation model of supply points to demand regions uses the Dirichlet tessellation to generate Voronoi or Thiessen polygons (Okabe et al. 1992). A tessellation is essentially a mosaic, a tiling created in a geometric plane. This tessellation is created by the intersections of perpendicular bisectors between each point in a set. The three frameworks used to assess the change in distribution of water points in the reserve yielded generalizations, which are useful as descriptors of system change, but can be hard to translate directly into management action on specific water sources. The advantage of the SLAF over the two other frameworks is that the area of the polygon associated with each water source is visually Optimization of Bus stop locations using GIS as a tool for Chennai city- Acase study, R.Sankar, 2003 In a developing country like India every advancement depends upon the funds available. This influencing factor is considered as there is huge need of finance for the development of infrastructure such as laying of good, strong roads. The road grade is essential for having bus routes in a particular area. It is not possible to have bus stops in the interior where the grade is poorer. The density of population and the infrastructure go hand in hand, this is the reason for having many bus stops in close proximity in the main roads. While considering the financial status of the government it is also necessary to consider the status of the public. In a higher middle income, higher income groups the dependency on the public transit system is less making it less imperative to have more bus stops. Conversely the lower income group and the economically weaker section entirely depend upon the corporation buses for their transit. Finally the locations are graded based on the risk factors. The s ites selected should not be near the junctions. Dangerous turnings are avoided. Methodology Data collection is taking on the ground using GPS and the map of road network which include the position of each bus stop in term of coordinates. There are about 41 bus stops between Vadapalani and Besent nagar, which is the study area. There are about 21 roads in the selected route. The network map is digitized. Digitization is done manually using On-screen method. The errors in the original maps will be transferred and they are likely magnified when digitized using GIS. Here arcs and nodes are defined by the user. The projection used here is polyconic which is considered the best suited for India. Arc View and Arc Info are the softwares used for digitization, transformation/projection and analysis. Analysis Buffer analysis is made to determine the effected area. The minimum and maximum distances are given. Selected route in the network map which are given as buffer distances. If there is overlap in the buffers then a common point can be considered for the location of the stop such that there is no overlap. This point is selected considering other criteria also. Confluence of all parameters is essential before arriving into any decision. The similar way if the distance between two buffers are more this indicate that the area in the in between region is not properly served by any of the bus stops. In this case new bus stops can be created. Thus it is necessary to calculate based on all the parameters that none of the areas are under served or over served. The route analysis was made the impedance value and the speed is given based on the vehicular volume on each road. The bus stops can be minimized in roads where there the existing traffic is high, additional positioning of these stops would add up to the traffic congestion. The locations of important centers such as hospitals, schools etc are also estimated for their proximity to the stops using the route analysis module. The time gained due to the reduction of the stops vice versa is also projected by having each location as a node and by giving a positive or negative value for the calculation of impedance. The demographic characteristics are also computed. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter will explain the methodology adopted in this study. The explanation starts with the introduction of adopted method for literature review, the method for data acquisition and the type of data acquired, data preparation and processing and followed by performing data analysis and results documentation and recording methods. Project Planning Data Preparation and Processing Data Acquisition and type of Data acquired Analysis and Results Fig. 3.1: Methodology Flow Sequence 3.2 Research Methodology Project Planning Selection of hardware and software (ArcGIS) Selection of study area (Shah Alam) Selection of data Data Acquisition and Type of Data Acquired Spatial data 1) Land use map 2) Route map 3) Layer Trace existing bus stop location using handheld GPS (X,Y). Attribute name 1) Road name 2) Building 3) Population UiTMà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s NR student source from HEP UiTM. (X,Y) Data Preparation and Processing Creating different Themes Digitizing Scanning Digitizing Creating Attribute Tables Analysis and Result - - Compare existing bus stop location with the recommendation as requested safety reasons. Proposed new bus stops based on the location of resident for Non-Resident students. Compare the distance between two consecutive bus stops with the standard distance of travel by man by walk which is 400m. (source from MBSA) Fig 3.2: Flow Chart of Methodology Phase 1: Preliminary Study Project Planning 1. Selection of Study Area The city of Shah Alam has to be selected as study case area which covers section 2 until section 24. This study emphasized in the area with educational institutions especially UiTM since this study is focused on non-residents students. 2. Selection of Hardware and Software Hardware for scanning, digitizing, and processing has been determined. Software that will be used is ArcMap. This software helps in digitizing also analysis. 3. Selection of Data To select data, it needs to relate with problem statement. Data has been gathered from many of sources that will be explain in Data Collection. Phase 2 : Data Acquisition and Type of Data Acquired 1. Spatial Data Spatial data is data pertaining to the location and spatial dimensions of geographical entities

Historical Perspective in the Essays of Susan Griffin, Richard Rodrigue

Historical Perspective in the Essays of Susan Griffin, Richard Rodriguez, and Ralph Ellison (Our Secret, Extravagance of Laughter, The Achievement of Desire) Susan Griffin’s â€Å"Our Secret† is an essay in which she carefully constructs and describes history, particularly World War II, through the lives of several different people. Taken from her book A Chorus of Stones, her concepts may at first be difficult to grasp; however David Bartholomae and Anthony Petrosky say that, â€Å"Griffin writes about the past - how we can know it, what its relation to the present, why we should care. In the way she writes, she is also making an argument about how we can know and understand the past†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Griffin strikes all of these aspects in her essay. What is most compelling about the essay, however, is the way Griffin incorporated personal, family, and world history into a chilling story of narrative and autobiography, without ever losing the factual evidence the story provided. The chapter reads like an entire novel, which helps the audience to understand the concepts with a clear and complete view of her history, not needing to read any other part of the book. Two other authors, Richard Rodriguez, and Ralph Ellison, who write about their experiences in life can possibly be better understood as historical texts when viewed through the eyes of Griffin. Rodriguez explores his own educational history in his essay â€Å"The Achievement of Desire† and Ralph Ellison depicts his own journeys and personal growth in his essay, â€Å"An Extravagance of Laughter†. Both essays, which when seen through Susan Griffin’s perspective, can be reopened and examined from a different historical view, perhaps allowing them to be understood with a more lucid view of history and what it is really about. What is history? Many believe that history is what is read in textbooks, or what is seen on the news. If Susan Griffin were asked that question, she would probably argue that history is much more than that. It is about the minds and souls of the people who went through the historical event, not simply what happened. In her essay, Griffin incorporates stories of people from totally different backgrounds, and upbringings, including herself, all to describe their account of one time period. Each person’s history is somehow connected with the next person’s, and each story contr... ...a play and Griffin after learning about her family.. All three authors of these essays are in a sense, historians. They wrote about events that are in history, which makes the essays about history. However, these are all great works, and are being used to help explore the ways of writing history. Thus, in the context of which they are being used, they are all history. Themes about finding the truth within the self are current throughout works, and different types of histories are explored; making these text much more than just about history; they have become history. Ralph Ellison once said, â€Å"The way [one] expresses both the agony of life and the possibility of conquering it through is the sheer toughness of the spirit. They fall short of tragedy only in that they provide no solution, offer no scapegoat but the self†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Each author demonstrates the toughness of the spirit, and provide no solution, as history never does. It is up to the individual to decide whether history will repeat itself, or whether or not a scapegoat will be found. However, Griffin, Rodriguez, and Ellison all did their part in providing possible solutions.†¦for history.

PEST Analysis Of AirAsias Essay

1.1Background AirAsia was set up by Dato’ Tony Fernandes in 2001. In December 2001, Fernandes and his partners set up Tune Air Sdn Bhd (Tune Air), an airline holding company then bought over AirAsia. Now, AirAsia has become one of the most successful airlines in the Southeast Asian region and the pioneer of low cost and no frills travel in Malaysia. The leading low fare airline in the Asia – AirAsia has been expanding rapidly since 2001, to become an award winning and the largest low cost carrier in Asia. With a fleet of 72 aircrafts, AirAsia flies to over 61 domestic and international destinations with 108 routes, and operates over 400 flights daily from hubs located in Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia. To date, AirAsia has flown over 55 million guests across the region and continues to spread its wings to create more extensive route network through its associate companies, Thai AirAsia and Indonesia AirAsia. AirAsia believes in the no-frills, hassle-free, low fare business concept and feels that keeping costs low requires high efficiency in every part of the business. Efficiency creates savings which are then passed on to guests so that affordable air travel can become a reality. Through our philosophy of ‘Now Everyone Can Fly’, AirAsia has sparked a revolution in air travel with more and more people around the region choosing AirAsia as their preferred choice of transport. As AirAsia continuously strives to promote air travel, we also seek to create excitement amongst our guests with our range of innovative and personalized service. The aim of the investigation The aim of this analysis is to conduct a PEST and SWOT analysis in the context of AirAsia’s international business operations, identifying the major variables involved and the impact of the specific threats and opportunities confronted by AirAsia .Besides that, The purpose of this report is to identify its stakeholders and core competencies, carry out a investigation of its external environment, review a strategic analysis of Airasia to identify opportunities and threats it might face, and to isolate key strengths and any weaknesses that need dealing with. Moreover a SWOT analysis will be carried out to assess the extent to which its strategies are suitable to what is happening in its present environment. Finally, after  identifying competitive strategy a Strategic plan will be made to gain competitive advantage. Chapter 2 DISCUSSION 2.1 Company Overview AirAsia is currently one of the leading low cost airlines in South East Asia which has expanded rapidly and it’s still the second largest air carrier in Malaysia. It dynamic nature of business is based on domestic and international flights, holiday and business arrangements for its customers domestically and internationally around the region with the low fare, safe and convenience means of transportation. (www.airasia.com). AirAsia’s vision To be the largest low cost airline in Asia and serving the 3 billion people who are currently underserved with poor connectivity and high fares. AirAsia’s mission To be the best company to work for whereby employees are treated as part of a big family Create a globally recognized ASEAN brand To attain the lowest cost so that everyone can fly with AirAsia Maintain the highest quality product, embracing technology to reduce cost and enhance service levels AirAsia’s values AirAsia make the low fare model possible through the implementation of the following key strategies: SafetyFirst: Partnering with the world’s most renowned maintenance providers and complying with the with world airline operations. High Aircraft Utilisation: Implementing the regions fastest turnaround time at only 25 minutes, assuring lower costs and higher productivity. Low Fare, No Frills: Providing guests with the choice of customizing services without compromising on quality and services. Streamline Operations: Making sure that processes are as simple as possible. Lean Distribution System: Offering a wide and innovative range of distribution channels to make booking and travelling easier. Point to Point Network: Applying the point-to-point network keeps operations simple and costs, low. Products and Services offered By Air Asia In-flight services: †¢ Air Asia offer food and drinks on board programme . †¢ In-flight services customise meals and merchandise package upon request e.g. caps, T-shirts, and pants. Online services: †¢ Online booking makes it more convenient for its customers to book online anywhere anytime. †¢ Flight information is available to help customers make enquiries on flight schedules arrival and departure time and date. †¢ Chatter –flight: Created for a group of people, business travellers for purposes like meetings, conventions, leisure or even exhibition. Channels of distribution A number of alternate ‘channels’ of distribution may be available: Selling direct: †¢ Outbound sales forcer †¢ Via mail order, Internet †¢ Telephone sales Selling indirect: †¢ Agent, who typically sells direct on behalf of the producer †¢ Distributor (also called wholesaler), who sells to retailers †¢ Retailer (also called dealer or reseller), who sells to end customers Sales and Marketing AirAsia is an international company, and going global invites a lot of competition. AirAsia has to deal with the competition of local companies in the same field- Airline services. Competition for AirAsia would also be encountered in the virtual world-the internet. As they entered into the use of modern technology such as the public domain would invite competition on the global scale. Different localities and countries have different technological standards, and quality control policies, which AirAsia would have to adhere to, by adherence to these policies; certain intended developments may be possible in certain communities but not acceptable in others. According to CEO’s of the company, Mr. Fernandez, there are a lot workers or low pay salaries earners who would like to travel often to meet their families especially during special occasions but due to how expensive it was that time, their desire are not fulfilled. By introducing a low fare will give all those people opportunity to travel if not more than once in a year. This enables them to identify their target market. Reduced price sales  is one of the basics of securing a target market for AirAsia. They reduce their price to suit their class of customers Branding AirAsia went into intensive General advertisements and other high profile activities, which contributed to the high offering of their company’s image. They came with a brand â€Å" Now every one can fly† These points of contact with their target customer help them to build their image, which in turn created loyalty from their customers. Group Discounts and Offers Discounts or other offers can help exposure business to new customers, resulting in a sales increase . AirAsia is a ticketless Airline that allows customers to purchase their ticket online with at a discounted rate. They also have a scheme of group discount and this help to get more target market, especially internet based customers. 2.2Core competencies: Computer Reservation System (CRS) AirAsia’s CRS (Open Skies by Navitaire) has helped it to grow at a dramatic pace in the past couple of years. Tony Fernandes, CEO AirAsia described that Navitaire’s Open Skies technology has truly enabled Airasia’s growth from 2 million passengers to 7.7 million passengers in less than two years. Open Skies scaled easily to accommodate our growth. It is an integrated web-based reservation and inventory system. It includes Internet, call center, airport departure control and more. It is a direct sales engine that effectively eliminates the middleman (travel agents) and the sales commissions that need to be paid to them. Enterprise Resource Planning System (ERP) AirAsia has recently (May 2005) opted for a full fledged ERP system implemented by Avanade consultants. By implementing this package AirAsia is looking to successfully maintain process integrity, reduce financial month-end closing processing times, and speed up reporting and data retrieval processes. Self Check In With the use of the new self check in service a quicker and more convenient way to check in using mobile phones, laptops etc, connecting to the internet. This system is easier and faster for customers and their family to  check in at or before they get to the airport without having to queue up at the counter to check in. Air Asia credit card Air Asia offers a choice of credit card facilities to fit in their customers travel life style be it business, leisure, training or holidays. With an Air Asia credit card a customer can purchase any goods or services while travelling anywhere in the world online. Go Holiday services Air Asia has a product called Go Holiday, with the help of E-commerce Air Asia is able to display their coverage maps, holiday resorts, first and average class hotels, car rental services, and activities in different countries with their different rates and prices on Air Asia’s web page.. Using E-commerce, customers are able to select and make a holiday and travel arrangement with a hotel of their choice and class, a pick up car and even medical services. And payments for all this can be done on the internet using credit cards or other online E-payment methods ahead of travel time. Foreign workers and Contractors strategy AirAsia also target most foreign workers from Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, China, Macau who may not afford the expensive flight home and offer them the cheap fare which attracted most of them as would go home very often without paying much. 2.3 The Competitors Companies in all industries have direct as well as indirect competitors. Direct competitors in the aviation industry are companies that offer flights to similar destinations on comparable terms of travel. Direct competitors include: Malaysia Airlines: offering flights in same routes . Singapore Airlines: offering flights on same routes between London and Kuala Lumpur. Thai Air : operating flights between Bangkok an Kuala Lumpur. Air Srilanka: operating flights between Colombo and Bangkok. AirAsia are facing strong competition with major international and national airlines on the market shares In contrast to other airlines ,AirAsia offers better value for money 2.4Analysis of Environmental Factors In analyzing the macro-environment, it is important to identify the factors that might affect a number of vital variables that are likely to influence the organization’s supply and demand levels and its costs (Kotter and Schlesinger 1991). The external environment of any organization can be analyzed by conducting a PEST analysis. The acronym PEST is used to describe a framework for the analysis of a range of macro environmental factors including the Political, Economical Social and Technological environment. PEST Analysis for AirAsia: Political Flying outside Malaysia is difficult. Bilateral agreement is one of the main obstacles in the way of low cost carriers. Landing charges is also another big influencing factor on costing of low fare airlines. The low- cost airline industry in south-east Asia has been underdeveloped because the aviation market is tightly regulated by bilateral air rights agreements. Threat of terrorism, people is afraid to fly after the September 11 terrorist attacks incident. Economic In spite of strong competition from Malaysian Airline (MAS), AirAsia’s low-cost carriers offering cheap tickets and few in-flight services are gaining attraction in the region. Current recession hit the aviation business. But with this economy slowing down, more people will want to enjoy its cheap tickets. Oil prices is another regulatory factor for this type of airlines. If oil prices go high, it is very difficult to control cost of operation. Social Passengers are reluctant to board a no-frills airline for a long-haul flight. Increasing world’s population, tourists and number of educated people helpful for the growth of aviation industry. Outbreak of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) has scare people to fly. AirAsia commit to â€Å"Safety First†; comply with all regulatory agencies, set and maintain consistently high standards; ensure the security of staff and guests. Technology AirAsia provides online service that combines air ticketing with hotel  bookings, car hire and travel insurance. To help keep costs in check, Air Asia has pushed internet booking services. AirAsia also recently introduced GO Holiday, the airline’s online programme where guests can book holiday packages online in real time AirAsia has bought in A320 to replace Boeing 737. The Airbus A320’s improved fuel efficiency and extra capacity which leads to better performance and reliability. SWOT analysis for AirAsia Strengths Low operational and maintenance cost by having a single aircraft type fleet i.e. from Boeing 737 to Airbus A-320. Economy of scales benefits. Low operating cost due to being No Frill, online reservations system, quick check in etc. There is huge untapped market in the region, especially for business travellers and â€Å"for-the-first-time-flying† segment. As it is low cost airlines, it can target customers who are currently using non-aircraft modes like, Bus, Trains, car to travel to distances. Weakness Huge investment to purchase air planes and implementing latest technologies there is high amount of operational cost. Rising fuel price. Increased the operational cost. The flight times are more or less limited to 2.5 hours. So they cannot operate flights of longer duration without any Frill, so No-Frill becomes impossible to implement for passengers. Opportunity Low fares offer by AirAsia has encourage people from all walks of life style to fly. Especially, during economy down turn. Airbus A320 would encourage greater passenger capacity and offer comfortable service to customers. Introduction of SMS booking allows customer to book their seat at anytime and anywhere. With the commitment in ensuring the security of staff and customers, customer will have more confident to fly via AirAsia. Threats There are more no-frills airlines may take off in Asia to meet increasing consumer demand following the success story of Malaysia’s budget carrier AirAsia. Singapore Airlines plans to launch a budget carrier, they see the success of AirAsia. They know how big the market is and how good the opportunity is in Asia. Travelers may not choose AirAsia if they are to  travel long distance flight. They will prefer airlines such as MAS or SIA which provide better services. Demand to fly decreased via terrorism and outbreak of the SARS. 2.5 Marketing Plan Cost advantages activities: AirAsia already introduced cost advantages activities. Some of them describe below: Utilising one type of aircraft (Boeing 737-300 which will be fully replaced with Airbus A320) results in reduction of maintenance cost (one of the major expenses in airline industry), scheduling cost, administrative cost, and inventory of parts. Creative and low-cost advertising significantly reduces marketing cost. On the other hand, AirAsia direct sales through internet, call centres, walk-in airport sales, and sales offices significantly reduce the commission fee to travel agents as AirAsia only assigned its sales to limited travel agents AirAsia assigned multi-skilled cabin crews (2-3crews/flight), cost-effective training, performance based reward and incentives systems Target Market: Low- income Customers and tourism segment Malaysia emergence as a regional business and tourism hub has provided AirAsia plenty of room for growth and has fuelled regional air passenger traffic. Transit passengers Kuala Lumpur is the operational hub for AirAsia, which is the best connection point between Europe and Asia/Australia has supported the growth of their business. AirAsia has been using this â€Å"connection point† to promote their business. 2.6 Proposed Strategy for further expansion of AirAsia Extending New Routes: Extending current services into new markets may be helpful to further growth of this company. It is possible to achieve this strategy by launching existing services into new geographical area or new market segments. Adding new routes and destinations are possible; especially there is growth Malaysia and East Asia tourism. Activities related to this strategy: Marketing research Feasibility Study Contract with hotels and tourist agency at new destinations Finding out strategic partner Marketing new routes and destination Time frame and cost: It will take 1 to 2 years to start a new route and estimated cost around $200 million to new aircraft and for marketing cost. Organizational change: Recruiting new employees Arranging training for new employees Opening new office in new destination Evaluation criteria: New destinations are implemented to achieve new market development. Flight number in new destination is the best way to measure result of this strategy. Private Suite for business customer: Introducing new services into existing markets implies product development. This strategy involves the development of fresh competencies and requires business to expand customized services which can apply to current markets. That’s why Emirate Airlines introduce high quality first class private lounges to attract business travelers. Activities related to this strategy: Technical and feasibility Study Allocated budget Contract with a company to install new facility. Installation and modification of aircraft’s onboard facilities Time frame and cost: It will take 6 months to 1 year to complete installation new facilities in a single aircraft and estimated cost around $0.2 million to new aircraft and for marketing cost. Organizational change: Recruiting new employees to serve business customer Contract with new or existing company for catering service for business customer. Evaluation criteria: Quantitative measurement of this product would be number of booking or occupancy. Chapter 3 CONCLUSION 3.1 Conclusion By studying PEST, SWOT and marketing analysis, it could be said that AirAsia  is situated in standard cycle markets where it get competitive advantage for its business policy and strategy. Providing customers with superior products and services with low fare is synonymous to the AirAsia brand. However, it is necessary that Airasia should re-evaluate its strategies and focus on core values and competencies. For this why, AirAsia should reconsider their market and specific routes to obtain value other than price and survive the competition. From this study, it is possible to say that still there is some other option to expand this company. Adding new route and introducing business class suite may be suitable option for AirAsia for further growth. 3.2 Recommendations To remain leader in the market in serving customers, AirAsia has to re-evaluate their current strategy. Recommendation for improvement can be outlined as follows: AirAsia should make any major changes to their strategy after proper technical and feasibility study to avoid unnecessary risks. Oil price is a big factor to low fare airlines. So this company should make longer contracts with fuel suppliers for more stability As Airasia operates their fight very frequently, so they should have a spare aircraft at each location to avoid delays. AirAsia should consider environmentally friendly operation system as such as carbon offsetting to save environment. REFFERENCE Daniels, J. D. & Radebaugh, L. H. (1998), International Business ‘Environments and Operations, 8th edition, Addison-Wesley, USA. Peng Mike W, 2006, Global Strategy, Thompson, United States Porter Michael E, 1998, Competitive Advantage, The Free Press, United States. Websites: www.airasia.com www.navitaire.com/res

Kevin Carey: Why Do You Think They Are Called For-Profit Colleges

Dr. Keel English 1301 10 September 2012 Journal-Carey 1. Kevin Carey researches higher education matters for a group called Education Sector. Carey has done many publications for big time newspapers such as The Washington Post, and the Los Angeles Times. He was the Indiana State budget director, and currently teaches education policy at Johns Hopkins University. 2. Carey discusses the crunching debt for-profit schools bring to their students and their practically worthless degrees in his article, â€Å"Why Do You Think They’re Called for-Profit Colleges†.Carey starts off by practically taking away the educational integrity of these for-profit â€Å"higher† education organizations. He basically describes them as get rich quick sales pitches to investors, with profit mainly relying on student government funding (Carey 217). Carey is relentless on exposing the fraud for-profits carry with them. He says† Without over-sight, the combination of government subsidies and financially unsophisticated consumers guarantees outright fraud† (Carey 217). Also, Carey states that these for-profit colleges offer virtually illegitimate degrees due to low standard.He says, â€Å"there’s no doubt that the worst for-profits are ruthlessly exploiting the commodified college degree† (Carey 220). With these statements C arey presents a very clear opposition against for-profit schools, he is very clear in illustrating his argument against them.3. Kevin Carey’s purpose in his article is to clearly expose the illegitimacy of for-profit colleges.4. This article has added to the disliking I have had for for-profit colleges such as University of Phoenix, and DeVry. Personally Carey’s evidence has reinforced my assumptions that these organizations are fraudulent and do not offer decent door-openers for careers.5. This can be applied to the business world because it is a perfect example of how greed from investing can take away the integrity of things. For-profit higher education should not be a publicly traded entity while they rip off students with illegitimate programs, while only about worrying profits for investors.1. The main problem with for profit is their ridiculously high prices and debt they cause. A positive aspect of for-profits is the way they deliver their course work to studen ts utilizing technology.This article illustrates a negative view on for-profit colleges and it does a fine job in supporting its reasoning.2. Carey focuses on the individual Michael Clifford, as a firsthand example to show how a get rich quick investment â€Å"entrepreneurial† attitude can dilute the integrity and benefits of a true college education.5. In today’s economy a higher education is clearly worth the price, if the student can afford it. There are millions of employees with decades of experience being told to go back to school, and get a degree.The economy has surpassed the industry standard for experience, replacing it with possession of a degree. I am currently attending a community college, and plan on transferring to a university next year, where I will study Accounting. Everything I am doing in my higher education will benefit me firsthand when I enter the workforce. In my opinion college life is much more accommodating than public high school education. College offers a new level of independence, it provides students with an environment to help nurture self improvement, while preparing them for America’s workforce.